Citizenship for Sale: Bibliography

This is part of an ongoing project on the political theory of investment migration, and citizenship for sale more specifically. As the literature addressing the challenges of citizenship for sale is still nascent and scattered among different fields, I have compiled a comprehensive (although probably not exhaustive) literature review of existing work on the practice in law, economics, sociology, and politics. This will serve, I hope, not just my own research but a broader and interdisciplinary research community.

[Last updated: 3 November 2020]

I. Historical Precedents

• New Testament, ACTS 22:24-29
• Ritter, Bradley. Judeans in the Greek cities of the Roman Empire: rights, citizenship and civil discord. Brill, 2015: 66-69.
• Schwalbach, Nicole. Bürgerrecht als Wirtschaftsfaktor: Normen und Praxis der Finanzeinbürgerung in Liechtenstein 1919-1955. Chronos, 2012.

II. Empirical Evidence and Explanation of Ius Pecuniae

• Abrahamian, Atossa Araxia. The Cosmopolites: The Coming of the Global Citizen. Columbia Global Reports, 2015.
• Boatcă, Manuela. “Commodification of Citizenship: Global Inequalities and the Modern Transmission of Property” In Wallerstein, Immanuel, Christopher Chase-Dunn, and Christian Suter (eds.). Overcoming Global Inequalities. 34. Routledge, 2015.
• Cooley, Alexander, and Jason Campbell Sharman. “Transnational Corruption and the Globalized Individual.” Perspectives on Politics3 (2017): 732-753.
• Dagan, Tsilly. “The Marketization of Tax Sovereignty.” SSRN Working Paper, 2017.
• Džankić, Jelena, The Global Market for Investor Citizenship. Palgrave-Macmillan, 2019.
• Džankić, Jelena. “The pros and cons of ius pecuniae: investor citizenship in comparative perspective.” EUI Working Paper, RSCAS 2012/14
• Džankić, Jelena. “Investment-based citizenship and residence programmes in the European Union”. Journal of Contemporary European Studies (forthcoming)
• Džankić, Jelena. “Citizenship with a Price Tag: The Law and Ethics of Investor Citizenship Programmes.” Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly, 2014, Vol. 65, No. 4, pp. 387–404
• Džankić, Jelena. “Investment-based citizenship and residence programmes in the EU”. EUI Working Paper, RSCAS 2015/08.
• Gamlen, Alan, Chris Kutarna and Ashby Monk. “Re-thinking Immigrant Investment Funds”. SSRN Working Paper.
• Grell-Brisk, Marilyn. “Eluding National Boundaries: A Case Study of Commodified Citizenship and the Transnational Capitalist Class”, Societies, 8(2), 2018
• Joppke, Christian. “The Inevitable Lightening of Citizenship”. European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie, 51.1, 2010 : 9-32.
• Joppke, Christian, “The Instrumental Turn of Citizenship”, in Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 2018
• Kalm, Sara, “Citizenship Capital”,  Global Society, Online First 2020.
• Kochenov, Dimitry and Surak, Kristin. Investment Migration: The Law of Citizenship and Money, Cambridge University Press, forthcoming.
• Ley, David. “Seeking homo economicus: The Canadian state and the strange story of the business immigration program.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers2 (2003): 426-441.
• Lori, Noora, Offshore Citizens: Permanent Temporary Status in the
  Gulf, Cambridge University Press, 2019.
• Palan, Ronen. “Tax Havens and the Commercialization of State Sovereignty.” International Organization1 (2002): 151-176.
• Parker, Owen. “Commercializing Citizenship in Crisis EU: The Case of Immigrant Investor Programmes.” JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies2 (2017): 332-348.
• Stern, Joachim. “Ius Pecuniae – Staatsbürgerschaft zwischen ausreichendem Lebensunterhalt, Mindestsicherung und Menschenwürde” in Dahlvik/Fassmann/Sievers (Hg.), Migration und Integration – wissenschaftliche Perspektiven aus Österreich. Jahrbuch 1/2011, v&r unipress, Wien – Göttingen 2012, 55-74.
• Surak, Kristin. “Global Citizenship 2.0 The Growth of Citizenship by Investment Programs”. Investment Migration Working Paper IMC-RP 2016/3
• Surak, Kristin, “Millionaire mobility and the sale of citizenship”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Online first (2020)
• 2020. Surak, Kristin. “Millionaires and Mobility: Inequality and Investment Migration Programs.” In Money Matters in Migration. Tesseltje de Lange, editor. Cambridge University Press.
• 2020. Surak, Kristin. “What Money Can Buy: Citizenship by Investment on a Global Scale.” In Deepening Divides: How Borders and Boundaries Drive Our World Apart. Didier Fassin, editor. London: Pluto Press. 21-38.
• Surak, Kristin, “Who wants to buy a visa? Comparing the uptake of residence by investment programs in the European Union”, Journal of Contemporary European Studies, Early View
• Van Fossen, Anthony. “Citizenship for Sale: Passports of Convenience from Pacific Island Tax Havens.” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics2 (2007): 138-163.
• Van Fossen, Anthony. “Passport sales: how island microstates use strategic management to organise the new economic citizenship industry.” Island Studies Journal 1 (2018): 285-300

III. The Case for Selling Citizenship

• Angeli, Oliviero, “Freedom of Movement and Emigration Pressures: A Defence of Immigration Fees”. Moral Philosophy and Politics, Vol 3.2 (2016), pp. 269-287.
• Becker, Gary. The Challenge of Immigration: A Radical Solution. London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 2011.
• Bengtsson, Ingemar. “A market for citizenship – an analogy to the stock market”, Paper presented at 2020 American Public Choice Society Annual Conference, Newport Beach, United States. [pre-print: https://portal.research.lu.se/portal/files/78911944/A_market_for_citizenship_2020_03_05.pdf%5D
• Borna, Shaheen, and James M. Stearns. “The Ethics and Efficacy of Selling National Citizenship.” Journal of Business Ethics2 (2002): 193-207.
• Brown, Eleanor. “Visa as Property, Visa as Collateral”. Vanderbilt Law Review, 62.4., 2011: 1047-1104.
• Casolari, Federico. “EU Citizenship and Money: A Liaison Dangereuse?* International and EU Legal Issues Concerning the Selling of EU Citizenship”. Biblioteca della libertà, Vol. L, no. 212 (2015): 45-60.
• Chiswick Barry R. “The Impact of Immigration on the Level and Distribution of Economic Well-Being”, in Barry R. Chiswick (ed.), The Gateway: U.S. Immigration Issues and Policies (American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, Washington DC), 1982: 289–313.
• Crettez, Bertrand. “Is Selling Immigration Rights Politically Sustainable?.” Recherches économiques de Louvain4 (2011): 33-55.
• Freiman, Christopher. “The Case for Markets in Citizenship”. Journal of Applied Philosophy.
• Gamlen, Alan, Chris Kutarna, Ashby Monk, “Citizenship as Sovereign Wealth: Re‐thinking Investor Immigration”, Global Policy (early view)
• Hidalgo, Javier. “Selling Citizenship: A Defence.” Journal of Applied Philosophy3 (2016): 223-239.
• Irving, Helen. “Citizenship for Sale: What’s the Objection?” Sydney Law School. Legal Studies Research Paper No. 18/05. February 2018.
• Ip, Kevin. “Selecting Immigrants in an Unjust World”. Political Studies, forthcoming.
• Johnson, Kit. “A Citizenship Market”. Illinois Law Review, vol. 2018, no. 3, 969-1000
• Kalin, Christian (Henley & Partners). Ius Doni: The Acquisition of Citizenship by Investment. Zurich: Ideos (Phd Dissertation), 2016.
• Krakat, Michael. “Genuine Links Beyond State and Market Control: The Sale of Citizenship by Investment in International and Supranational Legal Perspective”. Bond Law Review Vol 30 (1): 145.
• Kochenov, Dimitry. “Citizenship for Real: Its Hypocrisy, Its Randomness, Its Price” in Shachar, Ayelet and Rainer Bauböck (eds.). Should Citizenship be for Sale? EUI Working Paper RSCAS 2014/01, January 2014. [hereafter Shachar and Bauböck (2014)].
• Kochenov, Dimitry. “Investor Citizenship and Residence: the EU Commission’s Incompetent Case for Blood and Soil”. Verfassungsblog, 23 January 2019. https://verfassungsblog.de/investor-citizenship-and-residence-the-eu-commissions-incompetent-case-for-blood-and-soil/.
• Magni-Berton, Raul. “Citizenship for those who invest into the future of the state is not wrong, the price is the problem”. In Shachar and Bauböck (2014) .
• Muaddi, Jawad B. “The Alienable Elements of Citizenship: Can Market Reasoning Help Solve America’s Immigration Puzzle.” Emory LJ 56 (2006): 229.
• Osterloh, M./B. Frey (2018), “Cooperatives Instead of Migration Partnerships”, in: Analyse & Kritik 41, 201–225
• Simon, Julian. “Chapter 16: Evaluation of Immigration Policies” in The Economic Consequences of Immigration. University of Michigan Press, 1999.
• Tullock, Gordon. “Trading Citizenship.” Kyklos2 (1997): 251-252.
• Paskalev, Vesco. “If you do not like selling passports, give them for free to those who deserve them” in Shachar and Bauböck (2014) .
• Spiro, Peter. “Nottebohm and ‘Genuine Link’: Anatomy of a Jurisprudential Illusion” IMC-RP 2019/1.
• Webb, Matthew. “Citizenship for Sale: National Rights as Transferable Goods”. Proceedings of 4^th Annual Conference on Political Science, Sociology and International Relations, 2014: 27-38.

IV. The Case against Selling Citizenship

• Adim, Leila. “Between Benefit and Abuse: Immigrant Investment Programs”. Saint Louis University Law Journal, 62, 121-136.
• Althammer, J., & Sommer, M. (2018). “Can an Entrance Fee Solve the Migration Problem? Probably Not”. Analyse & Kritik, 40(2), 261–266
• Ammann, Odile. “Passports for Sale: How (Un)Meritocratic Are Citizenship by Investment Programmes?”, European Journal of Migration and Law, Vol 22 (3), 2020: 309-337
• Armstrong, Chris. “The Price of Selling Citizenship” in Shachar and Bauböck (2014).
• Barbulescu, Roxana. “Global mobility corridors for the ultra-rich and why understanding the neoliberal transformation of citizenship matters” in Shachar and Bauböck (2014).
• Bauböck, Rainer. “What is wrong with selling citizenship? It corrupts democracy!” in Shachar and Bauböck (2014).
• Bauböck , Rainer. “Summary: Global, European and National Questions about the Price of Citizenship” in Shachar and Bauböck (2014).
• Besson, Samantha. “Investment Citizenship and Democracy in a Global Age. Towards a Democratic Interpretation of International Nationality Law”, Fribourg International Law Research Papers 01/2019
• Blake, Michael. “Money, Refugees, and Justice”. Analyse & Kritik 2018; 40(2): 235–241
• Carrera, Sergio. “The Price of EU Citizenship: The Maltese Citizenship-for-Sale Affair and the Principle of Sincere Cooperation in Nationality Matters.” Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law3 (2014): 406-427.
• Christians, Allison. “Buying In: Citizenship and Residence by Investment”. St Lewis University Law Journal. Forthcoming.
• Collier, Paul. “Two Ethical Hurdles Facing the Osterloh-Frey Proposal”. Analyse & Kritik 2018; 40(2): 227–233
• Dagan, Tsily, and Talia Fisher. “State Inc.”. Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy. Forthcoming.
• Džankić, Jelena. “The Maltese Falcon, or: my Porsche for a Passport!” in Shachar and Bauböck (2014).
• Erez, Lior, “In for a Penny, or: If you Disapprove of Investment Migration, Why Do You Approve of High-Skilled Migration?”, Moral Philosophy and Politics,
• Feraciolli, Laura. “Citizenship Allocation and Withdrawal: Some Normative Issues”. Philosophy Compass (forthcoming).
• Johnston, Laura. “A Passport at Any Price? Citizenship by Investment through the Prism of Institutional Corruption”. Edmond J. Safra Research Lab Working Papers, No. 22, 2013.
• Lim, Desiree. “Migration, Entry Fees, and Stakeholdership”. Analyse & Kritik 2018; 40(2): 243–259
• Long, Katy, “Passports for a Price”. Four Thoughts Podcast, 29 July 2015. [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/b0639xst]
• Mavelli, Luca. “Citizenship for Sale and the Neoliberal Political Economy of Belonging” International Studies Quarterly, 2018 Online First.
• Ochoa, Paulina. “What Money Can’t Buy: Face-to-Face Cooperation and Local Democratic Life” in Shachar and Bauböck (2014).
• Owen, David. “Trading citizenship, human capital and the European Union” in Shachar and Bauböck (2014).
• Prats, Elana. (2019) Citizenship by Investment Programmes: Express Naturalisation for Bulky Wallets. An Arbitrary de jure Stratification? in Revista de Derecho Político (Q2) (UNED), n. 106, September-December 2019, pp. 347-377
• Shachar, Ayelet. “Abolishing versus Resurrecting Borders: Moving Beyond the Binary Option” in The Birthright Lottery: Citizenship and Global Inequality. Harvard University Press, 2009: 44-70.
• Shachar, Ayelet, and Ran Hirschl. “On Citizenship, States, and Markets.” Journal of Political Philosophy2 (2014): 231-257.
• Shachar, Ayelet. “Citizenship for Sale?” in Shachar, Ayelet, Rainer Bauböck, Irene Bloemraad, and Maarten Vink (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Citizenship, Oxford University Press, 2017: 789-815.
• Shachar, Ayelet. “The Marketization of Citizenship in an Age of Restrictionism.” Ethics and International Affairs1, 2018: 3-13
• Shaw, Jo “Citizenship for Sale: Could and Should the EU Intervene?” in Shachar and Bauböck (2014).
• Spiro, Peter. “Citizenship as Property: Not so Valuable”. Les ateliers de l’éthique / The Ethics Forum, vol. 7, n° 2, 2012, p. 63-70.
• Spiro, Peter. “Cash-for-passports and the end of citizenship” in Shachar and Bauböck (2014).
• Swoboda, Hannes. “Linking citizenship to income undermines European values. We need shared criteria and guidelines for access to EU citizenship” in Shachar and Bauböck (2014).
• Tanasoca, Ana. “Citizenship for Sale: Neomedieval, not Just Neoliberal?.” European Journal of Sociology/Archives Européennes de Sociologie1 (2016): 169-195.
• Tanasoca, Ana. The Ethics of Multiple Citizenships. Cambridge University Press, 2018 (new version of paper above).
• Tanasoca, Ana. “The Morality of Multiple Citizenship, and its Alternatives”, Philosophy Compass (Early View)
• Ypi, Lea. “Borders of Class: Migration and Citizenship in the Capitalist State”, Ethics & International Affairs, Volume 32, Issue 2 Summer 2018 , pp. 141-152

V. Policy Reports

• Alleyne, Trevor. “Sustainability of Caribbean Citizenship-by-Investment Programs”. International Monetary Fund, June 2017.
• Carrera, Sergio (2014) How much does EU citizenship cost? The Maltese citizenship-for-sale affair: A breakthrough for sincere cooperation in citizenship of the union? CEPS Liberty and Security in Europe 64, April 2014.
• Sumption, Madeleine and Kate Hooper. “Selling Visa and Citizenship: Policy Questions from the Global Boom in Investor Immigration”. Migration Policy Institute, October 2014.
• Xin Xu, Ahmed El-Ashram and Judith Gold. “Too Much of a Good Thing? Prudent Management of Inflows under Economic Citizenship Programs”. IMF Working Paper, WP/15/93, May 2015.

VI. Official Citizenship-By-Investment Policies

EUDO Database on Modes of Acquisition (A26 Financial Assets):

http://eudo-citizenship.eu/databases/modes-of-acquisition